Truman's Impossible Choice

President Harry Truman authorized the bombs after weighing brutal options:

• A full invasion of Japan (Operation Downfall) was projected to cost 500,000 to 1 million American casualties
• Japan's military rejected surrender even after Germany fell
• The Battle of Okinawa had just killed 12,000 Americans and around 100,000 Japanese soldiers, a preview of invasion costs
• Soviet entry into the Pacific war threatened to split Japan like Germany

Truman said publicly that he never lost sleep over the decision. Whether that was true, it stands among the heaviest choices any leader has ever made.